How resource shortage can inspire art and design innovations.

Juan de Dios Miro Garcia

M00221594 – DIAA3

FNA 3930 – Aoife MacNamara

Submitted to Middlesex University and Partially fulfillment for BA (Hons) Design, Interiors & Applied Arts.

April 2011

This project explores how art, design and craft are influenced by resource shortages. I begin by exploring the terms technology, art, craft and design and then move on to a consideration of one case study – post war Britain when designers, artists and craftspeople were working with severe, government-imposed limitations on the materials available to them.  In this section, I ask what the implications of rationing and shortages were for art, design and architecture at this time.

Can artists, architects or designers today learn anything from the approaches taken by those working at that time? In the second section I look at the work of a number of important artists, designers, architects and craftspeople working today with resource-restricted materials.  How have the limitations in material and process shaped their practices?

             

Chapter 1: Austerity Britain, Modernity & Design

“Technology, in all its diversity, is immensely powerful because it eludes the control of any one person or set of persons – no matter how rich they are or how much political power they think they yield. Power is diffused in technology because it is the continuous and changing product of a million decisions taken by anonymous individuals who add or subtract a small process here or make an improvement there”[1]. This quote allows to consider whether craft is a core creative element that technology imitates in periods of development: “The irony for practitioners of ‘the craft’ who claim that the one area of expertise that technology cannot take away is the unique aesthetic and emotional charge that only the human hand and brain can give to an object, is that gradually technology is successfully mimicking the appearance of craft. Even designers will have to strive hard to justify their existence in technology –led production for their skills too will be mimicked successfully by computer programs”[2].

I agree with this idea: “technology cannot take away is the unique aesthetic and emotional charge that only the human hand and brain can give to an object,” I believe that through our emotional reaction due to depravation we create objects or works of art that some how move the users or viewers. The real essence of resource deficiency in my opinion brought technology to produce replacement solutions and to mimic in a perfect way while craft is almost a pure form of creation. The lack of resources can also result in imperfection and that imperfection might be beautiful, in the mind of the viewer.

I found this quote extremely relevant in distinguishing craft from design by the use of it in our society of accepted roles: “Design is an argument and so is craft. In fact, given the marginal status of the craft economy, its power is almost entirely rhetorical and symbolic. It is easy to overlook the arguments presented by design, because they constitute the mainstream and represent the dominant mode of production. Only at the edges (of fashion, price or taste) does a design ‘statement’ become impossible to ignore. On the other hand, all craft object is a form of dissent. The choice of craft object is always self-conscious”[3]. As described by the author the argument between craft and design the two disciplines will always remain but I agree that design always goes with time marking a period which is constituted by an ephemeral element and just for collectors to be wanted depending of its fashion. Craft doesn’t follow any time period; craft is a discipline that adapts to its time values and traditions. Craft is the knowledge of tradition, which varies in time through the person’s interpretations. Thus, in immediate form, it is one of the things, which surrounds us in daily life; the external object may become an extension of our subjective self and serve as a point of departure for a new knowledge and quest for reality. Design is continual movement of change, as we want to see new things and calm our desire for possession, which becomes more difficult to satisfy in periods of recession. Design implies an attempt to change the world by acting upon its objects in such a manner as to change them from their admitted physical properties and accepted roles. As a contemporary witness of social revolution movements blowing across the Middle East TV, programs are showing us how I am able to see how the Egyptians or Tunisians or Palestinians overcome resource shortages using art, design and craft. For example, lack of democracy in these countries push cartoonists to become political satirists to voice their thirst of freedom. The work of Emad Hajjaj a Jordanian cartoonist educated in a Jordanian United Nations Refugee Camp before studying Fine Art with a minor in journalism represents an excellent illustration of cognitive and visual strategies of political cartoon (fig.0). Periods of war and their aftermath offer pertinent examples to study how technology, art, craft and design might allow to triumph over a lack of resources.

The great social-leveling influence of the Second World War meant that Britons were anxious about change. As a consequence, Winston Churchill, who led Britain to victory during the war, found himself as member of the opposition when the election of 1945 returned the Labour Party to power with a huge majority4 and Clement Attlee’s new government, which brought some of the greatest changes of Britain’s history and the reconstruction of the nation. (Fig.1-2). This period saw government take control of industry and public utilities and lead to a two-year period of the nationalization including the Bank of England, the coal industry, electricity and gas, air transport, along with road, rail and waterways(fig.3). A total of twenty percent of all British industry had been taken into public ownership by 19505.  This radically changed the nature of British design (See fig. 4).

Architects and designers were optimistic in the post-war period and believed in the transformative power of modern design to make the world a better place6.  These designers embraced modernist social policy in the design of not only housing, but so-called democratic furnishings, interior fabrics and public spaces. ((Fig.31) Utopian post war housing and design).  The war and its government-regulated aftermath delayed their careers, but made them even more determined to succeed like Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, (fig.33-35). To be modern, design did not just have to be new; it had to be free of any reference to the decorative styles of the past, which at the beginning of the postwar period were still preferred by most people for the furnishing of their homes.  An example of one such approach to the purpose of architecture in relation to tradition comes from Le Corbusier who, in Toward a New Architecture wrote, ”Architecture is disconnected and lost in the past.”7

Low-cost furniture harnessed the latest wood and metal working techniques, whereas pre-war furniture was solid and ponderous. A good example of this is the Antelope Chair, by Ernest Race, 1951 (fig.28). This chair is fabricated out of cheap, mass-produced and readily available material and formed part of the core furnishing for the Festival of Britain in 1951. The chair embodies a modern, democratic approach to design while acknowledging more to tradition that Le Corbusier might have allowed…(fig.37)

“Held in the summer of 1951 the Festival of Britain constituted an opportunity for Britain to display to the world what the country had achieved in terms of industry, design and culture. The Festival of Britain was also seen as an opportunity for Britain to become more colorful after the drab years of rationing and austerity under Atlee’s government. It was initially suggested that the festival should be held during the war years but this did not happen. Following the end of the war Gerald Barry, editor of the ‘News Chronicle’, pushed Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, to put his weight behind a festival that would liven up Britain. Barry pointed out that 1951 would be the hundredth year anniversary of the Great Exhibition of Queen Victoria’s reign. The idea of a festival was taken up and it opened on the anniversary of the Great Exhibition.” 8

The Festival of Britain took also great inspiration from the 1946 exhibition at the Victoria & Albert Museum called 'Britain Can Make It' and targeted a nation of bruised but proud survivors, creating an optimistic mood that lasted a generation. It employed great artists and was directed with energy and flair. The Festival of Britain had a moderate budget of £12 million compared with other colossal budget exhibition. Two million leaflets in eight languages were printed to promote the event. Press ads appeared in 34 countries. Four liveried double-decker buses toured Europe and a converted aircraft carrier, called the Campania, carried a floating festival around the nation's ports. Laurie Lee, a former staff member of the Ministry of Information, wrote the captions for 30,000 exhibits. Abram Games, the last master of the drawn lithograph, did the graphics. Casson was free to recruit the best designers in the country, including Misha Black, James Gardner, Ralph Tubbs, and James Holland.

As result over 8 million people visited the festival at the Thames site alone and the festival was credited with bringing lost glamour and fun back into Britain after the problems of the depression in the 1930’s and the war itself.

The Royal Festival Hall was the first significant public building built after the war and the first modernist building to be Grade I Listed. The opening of the Royal Festival Hall in 1951 heralded the artistic revival of post war Britain (fig.29).

The Festival of Britain drastically helped to promote better British design, construction and engineering. Its inventive response to technology reflected the positive, forward-looking mood of the early post-war era, sparing the use of materials and an economical approach to construction, using the minimum number of components enforced by the austerity of the war years, when materials and labour where in short supply.9 These habits became deeply ingrained in their design psyche, solving practical problems in the most rigorous, efficient and cost-effective way (fig.36).

Towards the end of the 20^th century a movement called “Art Manufacturing” consciously set out to inject art into a range of its products by commissioning a well-known artist, craftsman, or architect of the day to provide the product’s artistic content.10 This usually took the form of a surface pattern in the case of textiles and ceramics or, in the case decorative ironwork and cutlery, a decorative shape. This conscious injection of ‘art’ into manufactured objects, undertaken as a means of making them more desirable as status objects, was initially the prerogative of the traditional applied art industries and of a wealthy market, but gradually it also began to penetrate the world of new technological goods and affect the mass market.11

In both Europe and the USA the requirements for the expansion of mass production, mechanization, standardization, and the emergence of the mass market had become realities. The emergence of a whole new range of products, which made new demands on the manufacturer and transformed the life-style and expectations of the consumer, had become realities.12(Fig.38-39).

The pre-industrial, pre-capitalist system of supply neatly fitting demand was by now completely defunct and, in addition, the rule of aristocratic taste was over and new set of taste values were emerging, with the public looking to the manufacturer to fulfill its symbolic needs (fig.40-41). While in the early stages the new production machinery and techniques dictated the forms and general appearance of the new technological products, this soon proved insufficient to convince the new consumer, with his new-found wealth, that he could not live his life without possessing consumer durables for example: typewriter, TV, radio, etc.

The principles of good design had considerable impact on everything from automobiles to interiors as manufacturing production resumed in the immediate postwar period.13 The Festival of Britain is a good example in the UK of this (fig.23-29). Later, with the advent of an economy geared more and more to mass consumption, some products exploiting the modern vocabulary began to exceed the boundaries of good design with the introduction of energetic surface decoration, brash colors, and metallic glitter in order to compete for the attention of a wider and less sophisticated audience (fig.42-43).

At this time forms were created (with applied veneers, plastic laminates, and imitation materials (fig.42) and decorated with such a cacophony of colors and an audacity of ornament that these clashed most heavily with good design (fig.44)). By the middle of a decade, almost anything - even tradition - had become fair game for modern design, resulting in the multiplicity of modes that characterized the 1950s – and its subsequent reputation as a time of little content and a lot of bad taste. (e.g. PINEAPPLE ICE BUCKET – fig.45) This expression of pretentious bad taste became characterized by the use of the word kitsch that William H Gass assessed as appearing in the arts: "When money tries to buy beauty it tends to purchase a kind of courteous kitsch" (William H. Gass). The American critic Clement Greenberg entitled ‘Kitsch and Avant-Garde’ intelligently explored the meanings of ‘kitsch’ in an essay of 1939. However, although the word may be found in a number of contexts in the earlier part of the 20th century, its conscious adoption in opposition to the tenets of Modernism and ‘Good Design’ may be found in a number of Postmodern designs and the activities of design groups such as Archizoom, Studio Alchimia, and Memphis. Important in this respect were the writings of the Italian historian, theorist, and critic Gillo Dorfles, particularly in his 1969 collection of edited essays entitled ‘Kitsch the World of Bad Taste’, which explored many aspects of the iconography of popular culture (fig.46). Half a century later Kitsch has been transformed from its negative connotations and the view of kitsch symbolism has been widely reassessed. This is due to a better understanding of the value of a broader dialectic of design (fig.47) as one that can prize the restraint of a utility-based, socially responsible modern aesthetic as well as the exuberance of a lively, expressive, and ecumenical modern ornamental vocabulary with popular appeal. In our post modern era all these aspects strongly resonate in fields like interior design such as with John Pawson’s works (fig.48) and contemporary ways of shopping in furniture chains like the Conrad Shop and Habitat (fig.49-50).

Chapter 2: Contemporary Examples

I will discuss this consequence of the end of post modernism on the creative fields: “The trivialization of the word ‘new’ seems to have begun in 1947, when the term ‘New Look’ was coined for Christian Dior’s post-war fashions (fig51). ‘New’ soon became a catch-all words, almost as meaningless as ‘nice’; it only really makes sense as a determiner in the negative, indicating that something is not like what has gone before, but not specifying how it is different, like the ‘new’ in New Labor. The same is true of ‘new’ art. The Patrons of New Art at Tate for example are a body of sponsors (including many art dealers) committed to raising funds for acquisitions (and, incidentally, also responsible for funding the Turner Prize)”14 (fig.52). The simple fact of academic renaming or commercial rebranding an art form appeared sometimes like a way to signify a new creative energy and a break away from years of lack of ideas and resources.

To discuss the element of re invention and ways of re promoting exciting creative forms I wish to bring into my discussion the artist Byron Browne and Jackson Pollock. “In 1943, Kootz thought he had found the artist who could deliver the goods: Byron Browne (fig.53). Browne’s art at the time was described as ‘individual’, ’athletic’, ‘aggressive’, ‘advanced’, and gave evidence of ‘constant growth’ all attributes that many hoped would be shared by the American economy. It is easy to make fun of Browne at this point in time when the difference between Picasso’s innovations and the effort of his followers has become so clear (fig.55), but it is less easy to forgive Kootz. He was perhaps one of the first art dealers to apply the methods of marketing to his trade, adopting the by well-known ‘saturation technique’ from radio advertising, making sure his artist’s names were repeated, no matter for what reason, week after week in the media”. This quote inspires discussion and will be assimilated in my argument on how the lack of promotion in art and design made artist to over indulge in the pop art style.

“Pollock’s art was not purely a product of commercial pressure to produce homegrown, modern American art; it also sprang from fear. If America was to take a lead in the art world, as many like Kootz and his backers wanted it to, it had to produce art that was new. Someone had to act fast, and Pollock did exactly that. His action paintings (fig.54), as they came later to be called, were in part a response to the fear of American artists that they would miss the chance to produce original modern art”.15

Conceptual art can be assimilated to the representation of a self - fantasy in a not rational way which people don’t understand it because they think they could reproduce the same.

Art is the representation of human feelings, through craft or paintings, etc since human kind and their emotions are so complex and infinite. Therefore it is possible to say that the sources of inspiration for fine art artists will never dry up.  Design is the study and the organization of these feelings from “A” (Ideas and Emotions) to “Z” (Final End Product). At the end of all, art and design it is this multitude that the artists and designers are, projected into never ending shapes or forms.

“The crucial thing artists have to do when starting out on their careers is to select an artistic language that excites them with its potential for development. The options for doing so have narrowed in the increasingly ideologically and commercially restricted atmosphere of modern art. The situation has been getting worse, not better, since the onset of the Cold War”.16

The current lack of money in the recession and its effects on art creativity are subject to many discussions. Artists are clearly affected by the recession impacting on them negatively but possibly also positively by stimulating creative processes and thinking. Nevertheless the ongoing debates on the future of funding in art resourceful artists-designers will need to search and find other ways or resources to create and express their feelings and thoughts. I have no doubt that new emerging artists will find original ways to thrive despite the current economical and financial crisis. The work of Dutch designer Djim Berger as a porcelain Artist reflects perfectly how a lack of resource can be beneficial to the creative process of design. His ‘Lightweight Porcelain’ collection reinvents the traditional material, offering a version that is lighter and stronger. The material’s technical performance is obtained by mixing 1/3 porcelain and 2/3 polystyrene pearls – something professionals thought impossible to achieve because of the high quantity of added materials.  Once each piece is in the kiln, the fire burns the polystyrene pearls and creates the ‘new’ porcelain (fig.56). Almost comparable to a beehive, the result is an object that is stronger than the standard porcelain, making it ideal for applications such as furniture (fig.57).

“ I have the feeling that although a lot has been accomplished in terms of materials so far, porcelain has been a bit left out, maybe because it is considered too complex or perhaps too precious. It is an ancient material and earns a lot of respect with its history and ways of surviving for centuries without losing the original appearance; the smallest details, the translucency, the color, the sound, the magic of the process. It is a fantastic material to be able to work with. The goal of my work is to open the spectrum of porcelain. I experience it, make it take risk; I combine it to find new forms, colors or techniques. I just want to help to reveal its true potential: bring porcelain where it has never been before.” 17. Djim Brger.

New designers have surfaced with new solutions and have involved communities into their process. An example is the ‘Full Color Ball’ (fig.58). This is a hanging pendant lamp by South African designer Heath Nash. The new design is made from recycled bottles and other plastics and was recently won a habitare ecodesign prize as selected by the prize judge Ingo Maurer. Maurer selected Nash’s design because of its use of recycled plastic waste and the involvement of communities by employing people to pick up and sort scrap material. Each lights is different based on the scraps used. Most combine different colors of plastic to create a vivid shade design that surrounds a single bulb illuminating it from within. Another example is ‘Fat Monkey’ by Rotterdam-based artist Florentijn Hofman.  This is a giant site-specific project created for the pixel show conference in Sao Paulo, Brazil. This features a series entitled ‘Obeastitas’ consisting of a comically over-sized monkey sculpture (fig.59) as an inflated form clad with thousands flip-flops, which is a Brazilian icon. The resulting pixel–like effect lends the monkey a slightly fuzzy appearance from a short distance, which gradually grows clearer the further away one views it. The installation was made with the help of local students.  Their involvement as a workforce to make the sculpture and being recipients of this educative project appear crucial to the artistic piece.

Other examples of a shortage of resources inspiring innovation are found in furniture design. London-based design studio work ‘Raw Edges’ by Yael Mer and Shay Alkalay turns two-dimensional sheet materials into forms. Their project ‘Coiling’ is an experiment in coiled felt and acrylic resin. The duo cut long strips of rolled wool felt and these are coiled into  cone-like structures, which are meant to act as seats. The exterior of the form is then strengthened with an acrylic resin, whereby the felt becomes both the structure and the upholstery. Wooden legs support the seat (fig.60).

The creations of Maria Lobish & Andreas Nather: ‘ Stewart & Justin case’ is a mobile unit that combines all the essential elements of a kitchen into one compact design. The project was initiated after observing the inefficiencies of a static kitchen space especially for those with a nomadic lifestyle who can only afford a small living space (fig.61).

The realities of living in limited spaces and forever swapping rented apartments is an intrinsic element our generation’s experience that causes society to adapt to new ways of thinking as illustrated by the Janja Maidl designed ‘Umbrella Drying Rack’. Whether collapsed or expanded, the ‘umbrella drying rack’ can be put in small corners or tucked away with your clothes. The design features rotating arms, which allows for wet laundry to be hung up easily. Its ability to collapse provides convenience to users with limited living space (fig.62).

Other emerging new concepts can be wearable such as that created by Mella Jaarsma: ‘Shelter Me - 2005’. Mella was born in Holland and now based in Indonesia, is interested in the process of adapting to the lifestyle and traditions of a new environment. Her sculptural and mobile protective covering (fig.63) reflects the culture of the place in which it was made, the temple shape refers to the religious architecture of Yogyakarta. The refuge raises questions about migration and highlights two symbols of individual and social identity: clothing and habitat.  This conveys the concept of clothing being used as a form of protection and the notion of carrying one’s own shelter, promoting the portable nature of modern life.    

‘Mirror Costume’ by Korean artist Bohyun Yoon expands on his earlier work ‘Mirror Mask’ scaling up the concept to cover the entire body. The costumes are worn by, live models, that strap on mirrored panels made from plexiglass mirrors with brass hinges and Velcro to keep them on. Mirrors adorn the face, the chest, and hips of the models reflecting their body parts back and they move back forth. Yoon explains the concept behind the piece (fig.64), “I use mirrors to integrate reality and illusion. I use the human body as a metaphor for the People of Contemporary Society. My work question: what is reality?”18

The reality of the current financial and economic crisis caused by raw capitalism and its effects is mirrored in our daily life. The following quote is pertinent to my discussion as it illustrates how a crisis influences the creative process:

“The Crisis of an object implies a new orientation vis-à-vis the world of things, an overthrow of accepted notions of reality. Thus, in immediate form, as one of the things, which surrounds us in daily life, the external object may become an extension of our subjective self and serve as a point of departure for a new co naissance of reality. The Crisis also implies an attempt to change the world by acting upon its objects in such a manner as to deviate them from their admitted physical properties and accepted roles. Considering the world object in its broadest philosophical sense-admittedly for want of a better term that would encompass all manifestations of the Surrealism (oneiric object, found object, natural object, phantom object, and so on)-Breton the states that the latter referring to the way Surrealism represent the object in general”. 19

‘Lego Big Mac’, is created by Japanese Lego artist Sachiko.  The design was made to scale using only the standard Lego bricks. The design futures a ‘Big Mac’ hamburger (fig.65), complete with melting cheese and sesame seed buns. The burger is then accompanied by a pack of French fries and soda pop. The soda pop is capped with a transparent lid and a multi-colored straw. The only thing this meal doesn’t manage to recreate is the taste of a Big Mac but “embodies many interesting, if not controversial, aspects of our popular culture,”20 explains Matt Eggsware.

I wish to incorporate into my debate this element of the ready made:

 “A found object, whether it is a brick or a urinal, cannot by itself inspire you with a heightened level of consciousness, just because it is selected and placed in a gallery. You can look at these things with a heightened consciousness, certainly, but you can never know, just by looking at them, if you are sharing the artist’s consciousness of these things. The man who designed the urinal (I am assuming it was a man) did not make it to inspire ideas about art, but for men to urinate into. We can admire, if we are so inclined, the achievement of this aim. Yet how can we ever really know what was in Duchamp’s mind when he put it in the gallery? There is too much of gap between his consciousness and our conjecture. We can make a good guess at what was going on in Carl Andre’s mind when he arranged his bricks on the floor, and in Rachel Whiteread’s when she cast her ‘House’ (1993), yet we cannot be sure because they have left no trace on the objects they placed or cast that indicates their thoughts or feelings”. 21

A group of four artists ‘Gelatin: Palais Meyer Kainer’ transformed a gallery with a staircase made out of found scraps, lumber, three branches and reclaimed material (fig66).  This continues their interactive work that explores materiality, DIY aesthetics and their own brand of decadent foolishness. While the title of the piece ironically refers to the gallery’s location at Vienna’s Palais Eschenbach, the work itself looks like the maniacally inspired work of a carpenter set loose in a used furniture store.

New York–based artist Tom Fruin’s core-act is an outdoor sculpture consisting of a thousand pieces of found Plexiglass ’Kolonihavehus’(fig.67). Located in the open riverfront plaza of the Royal Danish Library in Copenhagen, Denmark, the installation largely resembles the form of a single house clad in a vibrant and complex skin of Plexiglas squares and steel framing, offering a visual and lighting effect close to that of a stained glass window.

With this quote I want to propose that to be successful in what you do, is not helped by what others believe. Lots of artists in the current art market are producing art dictated by the whims of collectors and dealers. This for example, happens every year at the “Frieze”22 London art market.

In my opinion artists should create based on what they feel and perceive in the world without following any statement or fashion.  A truly free artist will produce art without the worry of trying to be in a gallery.  We should produce because of  our need for expression against or within our experiences.  If we sell ourselves to the art market then we become slaves to a production factory as has happened with “Dali”, ”Warhol”, or the more recent “Damien Hirst”(fig.68).  The masters of the past remain as masters for what they “freely” produced during their time through their experiences. Art in those days was a social culture, which has now become a popular cult. The previous artists I mentioned before such as Dali or Warhol are pioneers who transform art into a sales factory.  Damien Hirst is currently doing the same with his sales brand shop: “Other Criteria”. 23

Chapter 3: Images

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Conclusion

To conclude my argument I draw upon an article that I discovered in one of the publications, which is distributed for free at the entrance of tube stations, which strangely offered advice on style and fitness. During the writing of this dissertation on the impact of resource shortages on the artistic and design creative process, as an art student I was attracted by various articles discussing the impact of the economical downturn on the UK government’s education policy.  On my journey to Middlesex University, I found the democratization of such topic given by Shortlist magazine regarding the struggle of future artists in their education path who like me  “After all (….) several years at art school. Students leaving art school in 2011 could be forgiven for viewing the prospect of graduating with ever- increasing anxiety.

At the Royal College Of Art in London, the only postgraduate university of art and design in the world, everyone feels apprehensive at graduation. The average age of students at the RCA is 27, and when they come there, from more than 45 countries, they have already spent four years at other art schools. Most of these students will struggle with huge debts when they leave. A few are given shows in dealer’s galleries shortly after they leave. However, the opportunity to sell work is limited, as is the ability to win a reputation. These young artists are known and recognized only within the confines of their colleges. Even the most promising talents are often overwhelmed by the struggle to gain a foothold alongside established contemporary names. If they want to sell their work at the graduate shows who is going to buy unknown artists in a climate of recession? To make things worse, at a time when property prices remain so dauntingly high, particularly in London, how can they ever afford the crucial studio space needed to make their work. This difficult climate-surrounding artist practices and their struggle can become a catalyst for creativity as artists re invent themselves to survive. I believe as Darwin did with his evolution theory, that art is undergoing a transformation.  The dependence by those who make art to evolve away from the art market is happening slowly especially with the new policy of the UK government to cut by 25% the funding of the arts (along with other proposed government measures like the increase in education fees).  In my opinion this policy will transform the UK creative industry, not only for the next coming years and will demonstrate the sovereign power of creativity in the country.

END NOTES:

[1]Dormer, Peter. The Culture of Craft, (Manchester- New York, Manchester University Press, 1997), p.p. 102.

2Ibid., p. 102-103.

3Ibid., p. 130.

4 Part 8: England in the 20th Century, World Wide Web, http://www.britannia.com/history/nar20hist5.html, (accessed 07^th April 2011).

5 Part 8: England in the 20th Century, World Wide Web, http://www.britannia.com/history/nar20hist5.html, (accessed 07^th April 2011).

6Day, Robin-Lucien. Design Museum, British Council, World Wide Web, http://designmuseum.org/design/robin-lucienne-day, (accessed 07^th April 2011).

7Le Corbusier. Etchells, Frederick. Towards a New Architecture, (London, The Architectural Press, 1946), pp. 268.

8History Learning Site, Modern world History, Great Britain 1945 to 1970, Festival of Britain, World Wide Web, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/2055.htm, (accessed 08^th April 2011).

9 Day, Robin-Lucien. Design Museum, British Council, World Wide Web, http://designmuseum.org/design/robin-lucienne-day, (accessed 07^th April 2011).

10 Sparke, Penny. An Introduction to Design & Culture in the Twentieth Century, (London, Routledge, 1986), pp. 15-16.

11Ibid., p. 15-16.

12Ibid., p. 16.

13Marcus, George H. Design in the Fifties: When Everybody Went Modern, (Munich, Prestel, 1998), pp.14.

14Spalding, Julian. The Eclipse Of Art: Tackling the Crisis in Art Today, (Munich-Berlin-London-New York, Prestel Verlag, 2003), pp. 55.

15Ibid., p. 20-21.

16Ibid., p. 41.

17Berger, Djim. Designboom, World Wide Web, http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/8/view/10641/djim-berger-lightweight-porcelain-collection.html, (accessed 08 April 2011).

18 Yoon, Bohyun.  http://www.bohyunyoon.com/, World Wide Web, http://www.bohyunyoon.com/mirror_costume.m.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

19Finkelsten, Haim N. Surrealism And The Crisis Of The Object, (Michigan, Umi Research Press, 1979), pp. 1.

20 Eggsware, Matt. Random Thoughts, World Wide Web, http://matteggsware.com/, (accessed 08 April 2011).

21Spalding, Julian. The Eclipse Of Art: Tackling the Crisis in Art Today, (Munich-Berlin-London-New York, Prestel Verlag, 2003), pp. 98.

22Cork, Dr. Richard. ‘Does the recession inspire avant-garde art?’, Short List Magazine, 161, (2011), pp. 38.

23 Hirst, Damien. Other Criteria, World Wide Web, https://www.othercriteria.com/ (accessed 07^th April 2011).

24Cork, Dr. Richard. ‘Does the recession inspire avant-garde art?’, Short List Magazine, 161, (2011), pp. 37.

LIST OF FIGURES:

0.     “Political Cartoonist”. Emad Hajjaj. George Bush says Iran’s acquisition of a           nuclear bomb would mean a 3rd world war. (The Editors, Jordan Times, Oct. 29, 2007). Pres. Bush appeared on Al Jazeera English TV news this morning, sending out invitations for the Arab-Israel peace talks to be held in Annapolis, Maryland next week. This is one of Emad’s pieces depicting this event. Posted by Cathy Breen Amman, Jordan, 21st November 2007.

http://vcnv.org/cathy-breen-political-cartoonist-emad-hajjaj (accessed 08 April 2011).

1.     Britain, Clement Atlee, financial crisis, Guernica, Harry Patch, labour movement, Labour Party, Picasso, Spanish Civil War, Tolpuddle, Whitechapel Gallery . http://poumista.wordpress.com/2009/07/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

2.     “Churchill’s Empire: The World that Made Him and the World He Made.” Richard Toye. http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/wss/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

3.     ' The legend says: ‘Stratford. Road, rail  and canal feeding, but also strangling an industrial area’. Carpenters Road, Stratford, pre-1944. Looking east from above Hackney Wick.  This is taken from the Greater London Plan 1944, which Fin Fahey took this photo on August 26, 2007, in Temple Mills, London, England ,GB, using a Sony DCS-S80 just acquired (Crown Copyright, so reproducible now after 50+ years).  http://www.flickr.com/photos/albedo/1264717322/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

4.     The County of London Plan (1943) was the first positive move towards promoting the modern London of today. The first ever published, “bubble diagram” was also part of the County of London Plan. Arthur Ling and D.K. Johnson drew the London “bubble diagram” in 1943 as part of the comprehensive 1943 ‘County of London Plan’, which was the responsibility of Patrick Abercrombie. London’s image as a city of village’s stems from this diagram. The plan noted that London had ‘a highly organized and interrelated system of communities as one of its main characteristics…’ http://cup2013.wordpress.com/tag/utopia-london/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

5.     These amazing photos of the mine, taken in the 1940s, were recently unearthed by his grandson, Steve Harrison. Photos reveal how Grandad beat Second World War coal rationing by building mine garden. “The Mirror” by Lucy Thornton, 21/07/2010. http://forums.canadiancontent.net/news/94435-photos-reveal-how-grandad-beat.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

6.     “Queen Coal? Why Remember Women in Post-War Mining Communities”. Black and white photographic print by Jack Hulme, showing Rose Hulme Blackleading a coal fired range © Wakefield Metropolitan District council, museums, galleries and castles.  http://www.mylearning.org/image-zoom.asp?picid=1&jpageid=2696 (accessed 08 April 2011).

7.     “Queen Coal? Why Remember Women in Post-War Mining Communities”. Photograph of an extract from Coal News June 1948 © Crown Copyright. Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland. http://www.mylearning.org/image-zoom.asp?picid=1&jpageid=2702 (accessed 08 April 2011).

8.     “Fuel Saving – Danger Hours for Electricity Cuts”, World War II Poster, c 1939-c1945. Credit: © The National Archives / Heritage-Images http://www.imagestate.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=1195211&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=1195211&orntn=1 (accessed 08 April 2011).

9.     “Fuel Saving – Cut Your Gas and Electricity”, World War II Poster, c 1939-c1945. Credit: © The National Archives / Heritage-Images http://www.imagestate.com/Preview/PreviewPage.aspx?id=1195211&licenseType=RM&from=search&back=1195211&orntn=1 (accessed 08 April 2011).

10.  “Is Your Journey Really Necessary?”. Travelling by train in 1940s war-time England. World War II poster encouraging people to save on train journeys. Photo taken in the Lincolnsfields Children’s Centre, Bushey. http://www.1900s.org.uk/1940s-trains.htm (accessed 08 April 2011).

11.  “Food, Shells and Fuel Must Come First”, REC poster, 1939 - 1945. Poster produced for the Railway Executive Committee to remind passengers that the transportation of munitions of war had to take priority over civilian journeys. During wartime, passengers had to be patient when trains were infrequent, delayed and crowded. Artwork by an unknown artist. http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%26+heritage/war+%26+conflict/world+war+two/art68370 (accessed 08 April 2011).

12.  “Poland's Holocaust”. Note the two different German-Soviet lines of Aug. 23 and Sept. 28, 1939 in Poland and Lithuania. Tadeusz Piotrowski. http://web.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect16.htm (accessed 08 April 2011).

13.  “World War II in Europe 1939-1941” World War II, or the Second World War (often abbreviated WWII or WW2) in Europe 1939-1941. http://www.zonu.com/detail-en/2009-12-21-11433/World-War-II-in-Europe-1939-1941.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

14.  “Women’s Land Army World War II Poster” World War II print advertasing the Women’s Land Army which was set up encourage women to work in agriculture as so many men had gone off to war, the women became known as ‘Land Girls’. Unknown Artist.  http://www.culturelabel.com/womens-land-army-world-war-2-poster.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

15.  “World War 2 in Pictures: Gathering the war-time harvest” World War 2: Members of the Women's Land Army training at East Melling, near Maidstone, in Kent. September 22, 1943. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/world-war-2/6157581/World-War-2-in-pictures-Gathering-the-war-time-harvest.html?image=6 (accessed 08 April 2011).

16.  “We Can Do It”. Poster, postcard 1940s. ‘Rosie The Riventer’ showing her muscles meaning that women can work as well as men during the war. Image from personal collection by Star1950. The photo was taken on February 25^th 2008. http://www.flickr.com/photos/castlekay/2292501632/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

17.  “Charlie Chaplin as The Great Dictator colored” (Dir. Charlie Chaplin, 1940). Digitally colored photo by Fabionei, on January 24^th 2009. http://www.flickr.com/photos/fabionei/3223252589/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

18.  “General Berlin City Map, 1961”. Based on a map published in "Unser Berlin", Paul List Verlag, 1961. http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/maps/berlinwallmap_02.htm (accessed 08 April 2011).

19.  “Shadow across the City”. Berlin Germany. A segment of the Berlin Wall © Margot Weiss, 2005. http://www.answers.com/topic/berlin-wall (accessed 08 April 2011).

20.  “Hitler’s Greatest Defeat: The Collapse of Army Group Centre”. Detailed information on the Eastern Front during June 1944, based on official military records and interviews with German and Soviet Generals. By Paul Adair. Printed in hard cover, June 1944. “Shadow across the City”. Berlin Germany. A segment of the Berlin Wall © Margot Weiss, 2005. http://www.answers.com/topic/berlin-wall (accessed 08 April 2011).

21.  “VE-Day – It’s All Over”. Daily Mail’s London Newspaper, May 8^th 1945. http://connect.in.com/daily-mail-today/photos-1-1-1-8b5237333077910c00856d791fdf9beb.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

22.  “This Day in History: August 6 -“ On this day Hiroshima was devastated when the atomic bomb “Little Boy” was dropped by the Enola Gay. Around 70,000 people were killed instantly, and some tens of thousands died in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning. Posted by Khephra, August 6^th 2010. http://sophrosyne.radical.r30.net/wordpress/?p=6539 (accessed 08 April 2011).

23.  “Lucien Day”. Textile. Festival of Britain, 1951. Posted by Kate Sullivan, June 3rd 2007. http://allthingsconsidered.co.uk/2007/06/lucienne_day.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

24.  “Chemistry World”. Screen-printed wallpaper design by Robert Sevant for John Line & Son, based on the crystal structure of insulin 8.25 determined by Dorothy Hodgkin. This wallpaper was used in the Cinema Foyer at the Exhibition of Science in 1951. Image courtesy of Wellcome Library, August 2008, London. http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2008/August/CTTL.asp (accessed 08 April 2011).

25.  “Front Cover - The Council of Industrial Design”. Published for the Council of Industrial Design Tilbury House, Petty France, London, SW1 and the Scottish Committee of the Council of Industrial Design, 95 Bothwell Street, Glasgow, C2, by His Majesty’s Stationery office, London, 1951. Photography by Juan de Dios Miro Garcia iphone. London, 10^th February 2011.

26.  “The Council of Industrial Design”. Page 11. Published for the Council of Industrial Design Tilbury House, Petty France, London, SW1 and the Scottish Committee of the Council of Industrial Design, 95 Bothwell Street, Glasgow, C2, by His Majesty’s Stationery office, London, 1951. Photography by Juan de Dios Miro Garcia iphone. London, 10^th February 2011.

27.  “The Council of Industrial Design”. Page 14. Published for the Council of Industrial Design Tilbury House, Petty France, London, SW1 and the Scottish Committee of the Council of Industrial Design, 95 Bothwell Street, Glasgow, C2, by His Majesty’s Stationery office, London, 1951. Photography by Juan de Dios Miro Garcia iphone. London, 10^th February 2011.

28.  “Antelope Chair”. Ernest Race. Festival of Britain. London, 1951. http://designmuseum.org/design/ernest-race (accessed 08 April 2011).

29.  “The Festival of Britain”. Site on the South Bank, London, 12^th May 1951. Image Number: 10454455. Image Rights: Science Museum. http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/ManualSSPL/10454455.aspx (accessed 08 April 2011).

30. “The Lansbury Estate 1951”. Posted by Michael Walker, Sunday 30^th November 2008. http://ourhistory-hayes.blogspot.com/2008/11/lansbury-estate-1951-its-what-labour.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

31.  “Le Corbusier's Unite D'Habitation 1946-1952”. Housing slab, raised off ground on sculpted legs. Construction System of concrete. Marseilles. France. Photo by Fortunateson09, 6^th March 2011. http://www.singletrackworld.com/forum/topic/elfins-tuesday-aa-architectural-appreciation-this-week-housing (accessed 08 April 2011).

32.  "I prefer drawing to talking. Drawing is faster, and allows less room for lies." Le Corbusier. Unknown Photographer. http://www.born-today.com/Today/10-06.htm (accessed 08 April 2011).

33.  “Kaufmann House above Waterfall”. Frank Lloyd Wright. View from lookout, downstream. Frank Lloyd Wright planned the house with this particular view in mind. - Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., Fallingwater: A Frank Lloyd Wright Country House, p. 31. http://www.wright-house.com/frank-lloyd-wright/fallingwater-pictures/F1SW-fallingwater-in-fall.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

34. “Frank Lloyd Wright”. Image courtesy collection of Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation. Photo Credit: Frank Lloyd Wright (b. 1867 – d. 1959), Date: unknown, Photographer: unknown. Courtesy Collection of Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust, H&S H267. http://www.askthedecorator.com/Frank_Lloyd_Wright_Article.shtml (accessed 08 April 2011).

35.  “The Mies Van der Rohe Society”. © 2005 - 2010 Edward Lifson. Some rights reserved. In honor of BiL, of blessed memory.

http://edwardlifson.blogspot.com/2010/12/great-new-website-for-mies-van-der-rohe.html (accessed 08 April 2011).“Mies Van der Rohe” D42-Bauhaus Armchair-1927. Posted by © modern design interior. Friday 7^th April 2006. Unknown Photographer. http://www.moderndesigninterior.com/2006_04_01_archive.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

36.  “RAR (Rocking Armchair Rode base”. Armchair by Charles Ray Eames 1950. In the early 1940, Charles & Ray Eames had the opportunity to develop new methods of molding/bending for the U.S. Navy during the World War II. They applied these techniques to their furniture design. Photographer unknown. 14^th September 2009. http://www.dsgnwrld.com/rar-armchair-by-charles-ray-eames-1950-8195/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

37. “Café Brecht-Uncle Bert’s Wine Bar”. Rich textures of pre-war interior furnishing. Photographer unknown. Date unknown. http://amsterdam.unlike.net/locations/307579-Caf-Brecht (accessed 08 April 2011).

“Mid-Century Modern LA”. Post war interior furnishing. Photographer unknown. Tpe(registered user). August 2005. http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=994659&page=2 (accessed 08 April 2011).

38. “Froze in Time: The fridge still going strong after 50 years” by Beth Hale. Photographer unknown. United Kingdom, 1st May 2007. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-451935/Frozen-time-fridge-going-strong-50-years.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

39.  “A Short Overview of Illustrations from the Age when Mass Media Met Pop Culture”. In a decade marked by economical growth, there were many new brands and products that came to life. Unknown Artist. Posted by Martina Skender, 21st September 2009. http://www.fuelyourillustration.com/1950s-illustration-when-mass-media-met-pop-culture/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

40. “The Empire Shop”. Displayed: April 1927. Artist: Fred Taylor. -“John Bull, Sons and Daughters”. Displayed: January-February 1928. Artist: H.S. Williamson. -“From Christmas to Christmas May Empire Trade Increase”. Displayed: December 1927. Artist: Austin Cooper. Photography by Juan de Dios Miro Garcia iphone. London, 10^th February 2011.

41.  “Selfridges Store”. Selfridges has beaten Bloomingdale’s in New York to be named the best department store in the world. Selfridges was founded by an American, George Selfridge, in 1909 and floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1998 before being bought by Galen Weston, a Canadian businessman, in 2003. By Nick Collins. Unknown photographer.  London, 14^th July 2010. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/7825262/Selfridges-named-worlds-best-department-store.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

42.  “Retro Kitchen Décor”. The fifties are making a comeback through stainless steel and checked floors. By Rafter Tales. Unknown photographer. 27^th December 2007. http://www.raftertales.com/decorate/decor-themes/retro-kitchen-decor/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

43.  “John Travolta's Hairspray”. American Film, 2007. Its story revolves around cheerful high school students involved in music and dances at a time in the mid nineteen sixties when the Caucasians were coming out of their superiority complex and the blacks were starting to get their rights in the different fields of life. Unknown Photographer. Posted by Jason EN, 28^TH March 2011. http://www.onlineusanews.com/john-travoltas-hairspray-13240.php (accessed 08 April 2011).

44. “David Lachapelle”. Mesmerizing and enchanting. His work oozes color and draws you away from your world and into his. His fake, crazy, insane work of art. Posted by Candi, 28^th December 2009. http://irresistablydifferent.blogspot.com/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

45. “Vintage 1950s Pineapple Ice Bucket 2”. A classic piece of kitsch! And a must for anyone having a vintage cocktail party. By Pretty  Nostalgic ‘s photostream, all rights reserved. Uploaded on 30^th September 2009. http://www.flickr.com/photos/prettynostalgic/page4/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

46. “Deco kitsch Example”. The decoration that goes with the interior of this house is many and varies from classical or vintage to contemporary. But what needs to be avoided is the Kitsch! It is true that some designers have integrated this style in their collection either like a tribute to bad taste or by just provocation. Posted by Libellés, 8^th January 2011. http://www.decomadagascar.blogspot.com/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

47.  “Art – Jeff Koon’s: Neo Pop Art”. Since his emergence in the 1980s Jeff Koons has blended the concerns and methods of Pop, Conceptual, and appropriation art with craft-making and popular culture to create his own unique art iconography, often controversial and always engaging. Posted by: Admin on 25^th January 2010. http://www.volumestat.com/2010/01/25/art-jeff-koons-neo-pop-art/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

48. “Architect John Pawson: Kitchen Roundup”. Iconic British architect John Pawson has kitchen appliances like the rest of us; however, his genius lies in the way he conceals countertop clutter behind cabinet doors. A Pawson-designed house in Telluride, Colorado. Photos by Ken Hayden, unknown date.

Posted by Sarah on 20^TH August 2010.

http://remodelista.com/posts/architect-visit-john-pawson-kitchen-roundup (accessed 08 April 2011).

49.  “A Truly Magical Forest”. The Conrad Shop, London. Over the past week, a serene white forest has been coming to life in the windows of our London stores. The work of Head of Visual Merchandising Betsy Smith and her team, its unveiling marks the end of a journey that began in March. ‘We received a picture of a single wooden tree from Stewart Walton of The Hastings and Bexhill Wood Recycling Project and the idea of a magic forest grew from there.’ Posted by Talking Shop, 9^th November 2010. http://www.conrantalkingshop.co.uk/an-exceptionally-magical-forest/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

50. “Inspiration: Eye Candy from Habitat”. Habitat Shop, London. Unknown Photographer. Posted by Aaron Able, 18^th April 2008. http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/ny/inspiration/inspiration-eye-candy-from-habitat-048337 (accessed 08 April 2011).

51. “1947 Miss Dior”. Christian Dior. After causing a storm in the world of fashion in the post-war period, Mr. Dior turned his talents to fragrance. Enter the bold jasmine and gardenia scented, Miss Dior Parfum after the “New Look” collection. Unknown Photographer. 1^st February 2011. http://www.justbemagazine.com/fragrance/1947-miss-dior/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

52. “Jade Goody Is A Turner Prize Exhibit”. Unknown Photographer. Posted by Anorak, 12^th April 2009. http://www.anorak.co.uk/page/7?s=Jade+Goody&submit=Go (accessed 08 April 2011).

53. “Two Women, 1945”. Byron Browne Painting. Oil on canvas, 30 x 38 in. Caldwell Gallery, New York. Byron promoted abstract art throughout his life and was committed to establishing America as the center of art innovation. Unknown Photographer. Labels: Abstract Art, American, Mid-Century Art, Painting on 21st December 2010.

http://www.midcenturia.com/2010/12/byron-browne-paintings.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

54. Untitled”. Painted in 1949. Jackson Pollock died on this day, 54 years ago.

Unknown Photographer. Posted by Rob Marsh, 12^th August 2010.

http://www.brandstoryonline.com/2010/08/branding-like-jackson-pollock/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

55. "Picasso and Samuel Kootz in Picasso's Studio", Paris, 1947. Photography by Michael Sima. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Provided by Yale University Art Gallery. By WNPR - Connecticut Public Radio. This photo was taken on 19^th December 2008. http://www.flickr.com/photos/wnprimages/3234636912/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

56. “Lightweight Porcelain Collection”. Djim Berger. Detail photo by Ulysse Fréchelin. Unknown date.  24^th June 2010. http://worldsgreatesttshirt.com/design/djim-berger-lightweight-porcelain-collection/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

57.  “Lightweight Porcelain Collection”. Djim Berger. Lightweight porcelain stools photo by Ulysse Fréchelin. Unknown date. 24^th June 2010. http://worldsgreatesttshirt.com/design/djim-berger-lightweight-porcelain-collection/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

58.  “FullColourForm Ball”. Employing the common and often necessary African tradition of re-using waste, South African designer Heath Nash has created an award winning light fixture, made from re-cycled bottles and other plastics. Unknown Photographer. Posted by J. Roaman, 30^th September 2010. http://theaccessorator.com/re-used-re-cycled/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

59.  “Fat Monkey”. Dutch artist Florentijn Hofman, who is known for his over-sized and often public art installations, has created his latest project in Brazil, which is made up of thousands of flip flops. Unknown Photographer. 21^st November 2010. http://thereisnohopeforme.blogspot.com/2010/11/fat-monkey-by-florentijn-hofman.html (accessed 08 April 2011).

60.  “Coiling”. By Raw Edges. Each object is made by wrapping strips of felt around wooden structures and coating one side in silicon, which soaks into the fibres to form a rigid object. Unknown Photographer. Posted by Rose Etherington, 18^th November 2010. http://www.dezeen.com/2010/11/18/the-coiling-collection-by-raw-edges/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

61.  “Stewart & Justin case”. Maria Lobish & Andreas Nather. The unit offers interesting configurations once opened and also features a belt system to hold the prototype together. The mobile kitchen unit is divided into two halves: one for preparation, cleaning and storage and the other for dining. Unknown Photographer. 25^th June 2010. http://worldsgreatesttshirt.com/design/stewart-and-justin-case-fits-in-just-a-square-meter-of-kitchen-space/ (accessed 08 April 2011).

62.  “Umbrella Drying Rack”. The umbrella drying rack created by student designer Janja Maidl. It’s a clever and saving space design that can be put in small corners or tucked away with your clothes, whether collapsed or expanded. Unknown Photographer. Posted by cna training, 1^st July 2010. http://www.woohome.com/furniture/umbrella-drying-rack (accessed 08 April 2011).

63.  “Shelter Me 1”. Mella Jaarsma, 2005. More a temple than a dress. Unknown Photographer. Unknown date. http://www.esquire.co.uk/2010/12/exhibition-of-the-month-aware-art-fashion-identity/ (accessed 08 April 2011).